Definition and Discussion of General American English

Definition and Discussion of General American English General American English is a somewhat vague and outdated term for a  variety of spoken American English that seems to lack the distinctive characteristics of any particular region or ethnic group. Also called network English or newscaster accent. The term General American (GA, GAE, or GenAm) was coined by English professor George Philip Krapp in his book The English Language in America (1925). In the first edition of History of the English Language (1935), Albert C. Baugh adopted the term General American, calling it the dialect of the Middle States and the West. General American   is sometimes broadly characterized as speaking with a midwestern accent, but as William Kretzschmar observes (below), there has never been any single best or default form of American English that might form the basis for General American (A Handbook of Varieties of English, 2004). Examples and Observations The fact that I conjugate my verbs and speak in a typical Midwestern newscaster voicetheres no doubt that this helps ease communication between myself and white audiences. And theres no doubt that when Im with a black audience, I slip into a slightly different dialect.(U.S. President Barack Obama, quoted by Dinesh DSouza in Obamas America: Unmaking the American Dream. Simon Schuster, 2012)The term General American is sometimes used by those who expect for there to be a perfect and exemplary state of American English . . .. However, in this essay the term Standard American English (StAmE) is preferred; it designates the level of quality (here of pronunciation) that is employed by educated speakers in formal settings. StAmE pronunciation differs from region to region, even from person to person, because speakers from different circumstances in and different parts of the United States commonly employ regional and social features to some extent even in formal situations.(William A. Kret zschmar, Jr., Standard American English Pronunciation. A Handbook of Varieties of English, ed. by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider. Mouton de Gruyter, 2004) [T]he standard assumption for American English is that even educated speakers, from certain regions at least (most notably New England and the South), at times use regional pronunciation characteristics and thus speak with an accent; hence, despite the persistent belief in a homogenous General American accent or notions like network English there is in fact no single norm of pronunciation that corresponds to RP [received pronunciation] in England, being a non-regional class dialect.(Edgar W. Schneider, Introduction: Varieties of English in the Americas and the Caribbean. A Handbook of Varieties of English, ed. by Bernd Kortmann and Edgar W. Schneider. Mouton de Gruyter, 2004) Variants in Network English It is important to note that no single dialectregional or socialhas been singled out as an American standard. Even national media (radio, television, movies, CD-ROM, etc.), with professionally trained voices have speakers with regionally mixed features. However, Network English, in its most colourless form, can be described as a relatively homogenous dialect that reflects the ongoing development of progressive American dialects (Canadian English has several notable differences). This dialect itself contains some variant forms. The variants included within this targeted accent involve vowels before /r/, possible differences in words like cot and caught and some vowels before /l/. It is fully rhotic. These differences largely pass unnoticed by the audiences for Network English, and are also reflective of age differences.(Daniel Jones, English Pronouncing Dictionary, 17th ed. Cambridge University Press, 2006) ​​General American vs. the Eastern New England Accent A few examples of differences between some regional dialects and General American or Network English are in order here, though these are necessarily selective. In the characteristic speech of Eastern New England, for instance, rhotic /r/ is lost after vowels, as in far or hard, while it is retained in all positions in General American. A rounded vowel has been retained in Eastern New England in words like top and dot, whereas General American uses an unrounded vowel. Another Eastern New England characteristic is the use of /É‘/ in words like bath, grass, last, etc., where General American uses /a/. In these respects the New England accent shows some similarities with British RP.(Diane Davies, Varieties of Modern English: An Introduction. Routledge, 2013) Challenges to the Concept of General American The belief that American English consists of General American and the Eastern (Northern) and Southern dialect varieties was called into question by a group of American scholars in the 1930s. . . . In 1930 [Hans] Kurath was named the director of an ambitious project called The Linguistic Atlas of the United States and Canada. He patterned the project on a similar European undertaking that had been completed some years before the American project started: Atlas linguistique de la France, which ran between 1902 and 1910. Given the results of their work, Kurath and his co-workers challenged the belief that American English had the varieties Eastern, Southern, and General American. Instead, they suggested that American English is best viewed as having the following major dialect areas: Northern, Midland, and Southern. That is, they did away with the elusive notion of General American and replaced it with the dialect area that they called Midland.(Zoltn Kà ¶vecses, American English: An In troduction. Broadview, 2000) Many Midwesterners are under the illusion that they speak without an accent. They may even believe that they speak Standard American English. But most linguists understand that there is not a single, correct way to speak English. So, yes, even Midwesterners speak with an accent.(James W. Neuliep,  Intercultural Communication: A Contextual Approach, 6th ed. SAGE, 2015)It should be emphasized that everyone speaks with an accent; it is as impossible to speak without an accent as to speak without making sounds. When people deny they have an accent, this is a statement of social prejudice and not linguistics.(Howard Jackson and Peter Stockwell, An Introduction to the Nature and Functions of Language, 2nd ed. Bloomsbury Academic, 2011) Also see: Standard American EnglishAccent PrejudiceEthnic Dialect,  Idiolect,  Regional Dialect, and  Social DialectMarkednessPrestigePronunciationStandard English

The Definition of Form in Art

The Definition of Form in Art The term form can mean several different things in art. Form is one of the seven elements of art and connotes a three-dimensional object in space. A  formal analysis of a work of art describes how the elements and principles of artwork together independent of their meaning and the feelings or thoughts they may evoke in the viewer. Finally,  form is also used to describe the physical nature of the artwork, as in metal sculpture, an oil painting, etc.​ When used in tandem with the word art as in art form, it can also mean a medium of artistic expression recognized as fine art or an unconventional medium done so well, adroitly, or creatively as to elevate it to the level of fine art. An Element of Art Form is one of the seven elements of art  which are the visual tools that an artist uses to compose a work of art. In addition, to form, they include line, shape, value, color, texture, and space.  As an Element of Art, form connotes something that is three-dimensional and encloses volume, having length, width, and height, versus shape, which is two-dimensional, or flat. A form is a shape in three dimensions, and, like shapes, can be geometric or organic. Geometric forms are forms that are mathematical, precise, and can be named, as in the basic geometric forms: sphere, cube, pyramid, cone, and cylinder.  A circle becomes a sphere in three dimensions, a square becomes a cube, a triangle becomes a pyramid or cone. Geometric forms are most often found in architecture and the built environment, although you can also find them in the spheres of planets and bubbles, and in the crystalline pattern of snowflakes, for example. Organic forms are those that are free-flowing, curvy, sinewy, and are not symmetrical or easily measurable or named. They most often occur in nature, as in the shapes of flowers, branches, leaves, puddles, clouds, animals, the human figure, etc., but can also be found in the bold and fanciful buildings of the Spanish architect Antoni Gaudi (1852 to 1926) as well as in many sculptures. Form in Sculpture Form is most closely tied to sculpture, since it is a three-dimensional art and has traditionally consisted almost primarily of form, with color and texture being subordinate. Three-dimensional forms can be seen from more than one side. Traditionally forms could be viewed from all sides, called sculpture in-the-round, or in relief, those in which the sculpted elements remain attached to a solid background, including bas-relief, haut-relief, and sunken-relief. Historically sculptures were made in the likeness of someone, to honor a hero or god. The twentieth century broadened the meaning of sculpture, though, heralding the concept of open and closed forms, and the meaning continues to expand today. Sculptures are no longer only representational, static, stationery, forms with a solid opaque mass that has been carved out of stone or modeled out of bronze. Sculpture today may be abstract, assembled from different objects, kinetic, change with time, or made out of unconventional materials like light or holograms, as in the work of renowned artist James Turrell. Sculptures may be characterized in relative terms as closed or open forms. A closed-form has a similar feeling to the traditional form of a solid opaque mass. Even if spaces exist within the form, they are contained and confined. A closed-form has an inward-directed focus on the form, itself, isolated from ambient space. An open form is transparent, revealing its structure, and therefore has a more fluid and dynamic relationship with the ambient space.  Negative space is a major component and activating force of an open form sculpture. Pablo Picasso (1881 to 1973), Alexander Calder (1898 to 1976), and Julio Gonzalez (1876 to 1942) are some artists who created open form sculptures, made from wire and other materials. Henry Moore (1898 to 1986), the great English artist who, along with his contemporary, Barbara Hepworth (1903 to 1975), were the two most important British sculptors in modern art, both revolutionized sculpture by being the first to pierce the form of their biomorphic (biolife, morphicform) sculptures. She did so in 1931, and he did in 1932, noting that â€Å"even space can have form† and that â€Å"a hole can have as much shape meaning as a solid mass.†Ã‚   Form in Drawing and Painting In drawing and painting, the illusion of three-dimensional form is conveyed through the use of lighting and shadows, and the rendering of value and tone. Shape is defined by the outer contour of an object, which is how we first perceive it and begin to make sense of it, but light, value, and shadow help to give an object form and context in space so that we can fully identify it. For example, assuming a single light source on a sphere, the highlight is where the light source hits directly; the mid-tone is the middle value on the sphere where the light does not hit directly; the core shadow is the area on the sphere that the light does not hit at all and is the darkest part of the sphere; the cast shadow is the area on surrounding surfaces that is blocked from the light by the object; reflected highlight is light that is reflected back up onto the object from the surrounding objects and surfaces. With these guidelines as to light and shading in mind, any simple shape can be drawn or painted to create the illusion of a three-dimensional form. The greater the contrast in value, the more pronounced the three-dimensional form becomes. Forms that are rendered with little variation in value appear flatter than those that are rendered with greater variation and contrast. Historically, painting has progressed from a flat representation of form and space to a three-dimensional representation of form and space, to abstraction. Egyptian painting was flat, with the human form presented frontally but with the head and feet in profile. The realistic illusion of form did not occur until the Renaissance along with the discovery of perspective. Baroque artists such as Caravaggio (1571 to 1610), explored the nature of space, light, and the three-dimensional experience of space further through the use of chiaroscuro, the strong contrast between light and dark. The portrayal of the human form became much more dynamic, with chiaroscuro and foreshortening giving the forms a sense of solidity and weight and creating a powerful sense of drama. Modernism freed artists to play with the form more abstractly. Artists such as Picasso, with the invention of Cubism, broke up the form to imply movement through space and time. Analyzing an Artwork When analyzing a work of art, a formal analysis is separate from that of its content or context. A formal analysis means applying the elements and principles of art to analyze the work visually. The formal analysis can reveal compositional decisions that help to reinforce content, the work’s essence, meaning, and the artist’s intent, as well as give clues as to historical context. For example, the feelings of mystery, awe, and transcendence that are evoked from some of the most enduring Renaissance masterpieces, such as the Mona Lisa (Leonardo da Vinci, 1517), The Creation of Adam (Michelangelo, 1512),  the Last Supper (Leonardo da Vinci, 1498) are distinct from the formal compositional elements and principles such as line, color, space, shape, contrast, emphasis, etc., the artist used to create the painting and that contribute to its meaning, effect, and timeless quality. Resources and Further Reading Form, Tate Museum, tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/f/formThe Art of Sculpture, Encyclopedia of Art, visual-arts-cork.com/sculpture.htmThe hole of life, Tate Museum, tate.org.uk/context-comment/articles/hole-of-lifeBarbara Hepworth vs Henry Moore, CultureWhisper, https://www.culturewhisper.com/r/article/preview/3670Works of Antoni Gaudi, http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/320Henry Moore Foundation, https://www.henry-moore.orgBarbara Hepworth, https://barbarahepworth.org.ukJames Turrell, http://jamesturrell.com Resources for Teachers The Elements of Art: Form, Grade Level: 3-4, National Gallery of Art, https://www.nga.gov/content/ngaweb/education/teachers/lessons-activities/elements-of-art/form.htmlShape and Form in Art: Instructional Program for Grades K-4, Teacher’s Guide, http://gettingtoknow.com/wp-content/uploads/shapeinartTG.pdf